Abstract
Background and Objective
Placebo effects are considered to be learning phenomena. There is a growing body of evidence supporting the role of both classical conditioning and observational learning in the induction of placebo effects. However, the third basic learning process, operant conditioning, was not considered as a mechanism of placebo effects until very recently. Unlike classically conditioned responses, which are induced by stimuli that precede the behavior, operant behaviors are shaped and maintained by their consequences. Thus, placebo effects may not only result from pairing an active intervention with the stimuli that accompany its administration (placebo), but also positive (e.g., the ability to perform a desired activity) or negative reinforcement (e.g., pain relief) of placebo administration may increase the frequency of taking placebos in the future. The paper reviews the evidence supporting the idea of operant conditioning as a mechanism of placebo effects and discusses it in the context of the general principles of operant conditioning, the operant conditioning account of pain modulation, and research findings on the role of operant conditioning in pain modulation.
Databases and Data Treatment
This is a narrative review.
Results
Seven lines of research are proposed to study the role of operant conditioning in producing placebo effects.
Conclusions
Operant conditioning account of placebo effects has practical implications both for routine clinical practice and the placebo arms of randomized controlled trials.
from Wiley: European Journal of Pain: Table of Contents https://ift.tt/31V4k9m
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